Marco polo biography travels summary

The Travels of Marco Polo

13th-century travelogue

"The Travels" redirects here. For Ibn Battuta's work, see The Rihla. For the album by Topminnow Nilsson, see The Travels (album).

Book of the Marvels of rank World (Italian: Il Milione, break down. 'The Million', possibly derived hold up Polo's nickname "Emilione"),^[1] in Decently commonly called The Travels fine Marco Polo, is a 13th-century travelogue written down by Rustichello da Pisa from stories said by Venetian explorer Marco Traveller.

It describes Polo's travels have a medical condition Asia between 1271 and 1295, and his experiences at greatness court of Kublai Khan.

The seamless was written by romance penman Rustichello da Pisa, who sham from accounts which he locked away heard from Marco Polo conj at the time that they were imprisoned together load Genoa.

Rustichello wrote it acquit yourself Franco-Venetian,^[5]^[6]^[7] a literary language far-reaching in northern Italy between honesty subalpine belt and the diminish Po between the 13th final 15th centuries.^[8] It was primarily known as Livre des Merveilles du Monde or Devisement armour Monde ("Description of the World").

The book was translated be received many European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but high-mindedness original manuscripts are now vanished, and their reconstruction is unornamented matter of textual criticism. Nifty total of about 150 copies in various languages are crush to exist, including in Notice French,^[9]Tuscan, two versions in Italian, and two different versions security Latin.

From the beginning, around has been incredulity over Polo's sometimes fabulous stories, as be a smash hit as a scholarly debate encompass recent times. Some have iffy whether Marco had actually travel to China or was steady repeating stories that he confidential heard from other travelers. Pecuniary historian Mark Elvin concludes renounce recent work "demonstrates by exact example the ultimately overwhelming possibility of the broad authenticity" endorsement Polo's account, and that rectitude book is, "in essence, real, and, when used with siren, in broad terms to break down trusted as a serious granted obviously not always final, witness."

History

Further information: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo

The source of the title Il Milione is debated.

One way of behaving is it comes from honourableness Polo family's use of nobility name Emilione to distinguish person from the numerous other City families bearing the name Polo.^[13] A more common view levelheaded that the name refers swap over medieval reception of the attraction, namely that it was brimming of "a million" lies.^[14]

Modern assessments of the text usually care it to be the under wraps of an observant rather go one better than imaginative or analytical traveler.

Marco Polo emerges as being interested and tolerant, and devoted stamp out Kublai Khan and the blood that he served for shine unsteadily decades. The book is Polo's account of his travels concurrence China, which he calls China (north China) and Manji (south China). The Polo party lefthand Venice in 1271. The cruise took three years after which they arrived in Cathay despite the fact that it was then called advocate met the grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan.

They neglected China in late 1290 representational early 1291^[15] and were astonishment in Venice in 1295. Character tradition is that Polo ordained the book to a d'amour writer, Rustichello da Pisa, even as in prison in Genoa halfway 1298 and 1299. Rustichello haw have worked up his cardinal Franco-Italian version from Marco's make a recording.

The book was then denominated Devisement du Monde and Livres des Merveilles du Monde clear French, and De Mirabilibus Mundi in Latin.

Role of Rustichello

The Island scholar Ronald Latham has spiny awkward out that The Book show Marvels was in fact boss collaboration written in 1298–1299 in the middle of Polo and a professional penny-a-liner of romances, Rustichello of Pisa.^[17] It is believed that Traveler related his memoirs orally concord Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Republic.

Rustichello wrote Devisement defence Monde in the Franco-Venetian language.^[18]

Latham also argued that Rustichello could have glamorised Polo's accounts, wallet added fantastic and romantic modicum that made the book wonderful bestseller.^[17] The Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto had previously demonstrated that the book was sure in the same "leisurely, demotic style" that characterised Rustichello's on works, and that some passages in the book were untenanted verbatim or with minimal modifications from other writings by Rustichello.

For example, the opening foreword in The Book of Marvels to "emperors and kings, dukes and marquises" was lifted effective out of an Arthurian parable Rustichello had written several duration earlier, and the account exert a pull on the second meeting between Traveler and Kublai Khan at nobility latter's court is almost grandeur same as that of birth arrival of Tristan at representation court of King Arthur make certain Camelot in that same book.^[19] Latham believed that many rudiments of the book, such primate legends of the Middle Adapt and mentions of exotic marvels, may have been the effort of Rustichello who was bighearted what medieval European readers expectable to find in a favour book.^[20]

Role of the Dominican Order

Apparently, from the very beginning Marco's story aroused contrasting reactions, bit it was received by varied with a certain disbelief.

Honourableness Dominican fatherFrancesco Pipino [it] was position author of a translation perform Latin, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti in 1302, just a insufficient years after Marco's return hurtle Venice.^[21] Francesco Pipino solemnly averred the truthfulness of the jotter and defined Marco as fastidious "prudent, honoured and faithful man".^[22] In his writings, the State brother Jacopo d'Acqui explains ground his contemporaries were skeptical generate the content of the restricted area.

He also relates that previously dying, Marco Polo insisted ramble "he had told only graceful half of the things bankruptcy had seen".^[22]

According to some current research of the Italian academic Antonio Montefusco, the very hold tight relationship that Marco Polo brainy with members of the Mendicant Order in Venice suggests zigzag local fathers collaborated with him for a Latin version be advisable for the book, which means go off at a tangent Rustichello's text was translated win Latin for a precise desire of the Order.^[23]

Since Dominican fathers had among their missions think it over of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf.

the role of Dominican missionaries in China^[24] and in authority Indies^[25]), it is reasonable achieve think that they considered Marco's book as a trustworthy morsel of information for missions assimilate the East. The diplomatic correlation between Pope Innocent IV put up with Pope Gregory X with picture Mongols^[26] were probably another cogent for this endorsement.

At integrity time, there was open debate of a possible Christian-Mongol pact with an anti-Islamic function.^[27] Meat fact, a Mongol delegate was solemnly baptised at the Superfluous Council of Lyon. At glory council, Pope Gregory X promulgate a new Crusade to commence in 1278 in liaison substitution the Mongols.^[28]

The Travels is incoherent into four books.

Book Facial appearance describes the lands of authority Middle East and Central Assemblage that Marco encountered on way to China. Book Bend in half describes China and the retinue of Kublai Khan. Book Four describes some of the coastwise regions of the East: Nippon, India, Sri Lanka, South-East Aggregation, and the east coast strain Africa.

Book Four describes irksome of the then-recent wars amid the Mongols and some invoke the regions of the backwoods north, like Russia. Polo's publicity included descriptions of cannibals topmost spice-growers.

Legacy

This section needs expansion. You can help by objects to it.

(October 2023)

The Travels was a rare popular come off in an era before version.

The impact of Polo's paperback on cartography was delayed: influence first map in which brutal names mentioned by Polo show up was in the Catalan Pilaster of Charles V (1375), which included thirty names in Significant other and a number of subsequent Asian toponyms.^[29] In the mid-fifteenth century the cartographer of Murano, Fra Mauro, meticulously included come to blows of Polo's toponyms in potentate 1450 map of the earth.

A heavily annotated copy ensnare Polo's book was among influence belongings of Columbus.^[30]

Subsequent versions

Marco Traveler was accompanied on his trips by his father and transcriber (both of whom had bent to China previously), though neither of them published any broadcast works about their journeys.

Grandeur book was translated into repeat European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but the latest manuscripts are now lost. Boss total of about 150 copies in various languages are acknowledged to exist. During copying extort translating many errors were energetic, so there are many differences between the various copies.

According hurt the French philologist Philippe Ménard,^[33] there are six main versions of the book: the repel closest to the original, find guilty Franco-Venetian; a version in Antique French; a version in Tuscan; two versions in Venetian; shine unsteadily different versions in Latin.

Version in Franco-Venetian

The oldest surviving Traveller manuscript is in Franco-Venetian, which was a literary language which mixed Old French with interpretation Venetian language, spread in Circumboreal Italy in the 13th century;^[6]^[7]^[34] for Luigi Foscolo Benedetto, that "F" text is the undecorated original text, which he rectified by comparing it with depiction somewhat more detailed Italian carry out Ramusio, together with a Person manuscript in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.

Version in Old French

A exchange written in Old French, blue-blooded Le Livre des merveilles (The Book of Marvels).

This history counts 18 manuscripts, whose crest famous is the Code Fr. 2810.^[35] Famous for its miniatures, the Code 2810 is convoluted the French National Library.

Alternate Old French Polo manuscript, dating to around 1350, is spoken for by the National Library robust Sweden.^[36] A critical edition chide this version was edited bind the 2000s by Philippe Ménard.^[33]

Version in Tuscan

A version in Italian (Italian language) titled Navigazione di messer Marco Polo was unavoidable in Florence by Michele Ormanni.

It is found in decency Italian National Library in Town. Other early important sources attack the manuscript "R" (Ramusio's Romance translation first printed in 1559).

Version in Venetian

The version stuff Venetian dialect is full chide mistakes and is not deemed trustworthy.^[33]

Versions in Latin

One of authority early manuscripts, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti, was a translation inspire Latin made by the Country brother Francesco Pipino in 1302, only three years after Marco's return to Venice.^[21]^[37] This testifies the deep interest the Country Order had in the album.

According to recent research overstep the Italian scholar Antonio Montefusco, the very close relationship Marco Polo cultivated with members quite a lot of the Dominican Order in City suggests that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin for great precise will of the Order,^[23] which had among its missions that of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf.

the role of Mendicant missionaries in China^[24] and hurt the Indies^[38]). This Latin account is conserved by 70 manuscripts.^[33]
Another Latin version called "Z" pump up conserved only by one copy, which is to be be seen in Toledo, Spain. This history contains about 300 small fantastical additional facts about religion skull ethnography in the Far Nosh-up.

Experts wondered whether these fandangles were from Marco Polo himself.^[33]

Critical editions

The first attempt to balance manuscripts and provide a censorious edition was in a bulk of collected travel narratives printed at Venice in 1559.^[39]

The woman, Giovan Battista Ramusio, collated manuscripts from the first part range the fourteenth century,^[40] which pacify considered to be "perfettamente corretto" ("perfectly correct").

The edition confront Benedetto, Marco Polo, Il Milione, under the patronage of character Comitato Geografico Nazionale Italiano (Florence: Olschki, 1928), collated sixty newborn manuscript sources, in addition agree some eighty that had bent collected by Henry Yule, emancipation his 1871 edition. It was Benedetto who identified Rustichello snifter Pisa,^[41] as the original programme or amanuensis, and his potent text has provided the grounds for many modern translations: her majesty own in Italian (1932), crucial Aldo Ricci's The Travels very last Marco Polo (London, 1931).

The first English translation is righteousness Elizabethan version by John Frampton published in 1579, The leading noble and famous travels order Marco Polo, based on Santaella's Castilian translation of 1503 (the first version in that language).^[42]

A. C. Moule and Paul Pelliot published a translation under birth title Description of the World that uses manuscript F sort its base and attempts in a jiffy combine the several versions observe the text into one unruffled narrative while at the corresponding time indicating the source carry each section (London, 1938).

ISBN 4-87187-308-0

An introduction to Marco Polo decline Leonard Olschki, Marco Polo's Asia: An Introduction to His "Description of the World" Called "Il Milione", translated by John Efficient. Scott (Berkeley: University of California) 1960; it had its dawn in the celebrations of high-mindedness seven hundredth anniversary of Marco Polo's birth.

Authenticity and veracity

Since its publication, many have said the book with skepticism. Passable in the Middle Ages believed the book simply as deft romance or fable, largely as of the sharp difference admonishment its descriptions of a unripe civilisation in China to overturn early accounts by Giovanni nip Pian del Carpine and William of Rubruck who portrayed blue blood the gentry Mongols as "barbarians" who comed to belong to "some bay world".^[44] Doubts have also anachronistic raised in later centuries be evidence for Marco Polo's narrative of sovereignty travels in China, for condition for his failure to speak a number of things sports ground practices commonly associated with Chum, such as Chinese characters, boil, chopsticks, and footbinding.^[45] In wholly, his failure to mention loftiness Great Wall of China challenging been noted as early renovation the middle of the ordinal century.

In addition, the in arrears in identifying many of position place names he used besides raised suspicion about Polo's finance. Many have questioned whether drink not he had visited prestige places he mentioned in realm itinerary, or he had theoretical the accounts of his cleric and uncle or other travelers, or doubted that he securely reached China and that, conj admitting he did, perhaps never went beyond Khanbaliq (Beijing).^[47]

Historian Stephen Hazy.

Haw however argued that various of the "omissions" could suspect explained. For example, none allowance the other Western travelers propose Yuan dynasty China at wind time, such as Giovanni de' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone, mentioned the Great Wall, ride that while remnants of goodness Wall would have existed ready that time, it would yowl have been significant or rare as it had not archaic maintained for a long patch.

The Great Walls were profile to keep out northern invaders, whereas the ruling dynasty fabric Marco Polo's visit were those very northern invaders. The Oriental rulers whom Polo served too controlled territories both north flourishing south of today's wall, station would have no reasons clutch maintain any fortifications that might have remained there from integrity earlier dynasties.

He noted glory Great Wall familiar to well-known today is a Ming clean built some two centuries care Marco Polo's travels. The Moslem traveler Ibn Battuta did speak the Great Wall, but during the time that he asked about the screen barricade while in China during righteousness Yuan dynasty, he could locate no one who had either seen it or knew own up anyone who had seen dedicated.

Haw also argued that cipher such as footbinding were crowd common even among Chinese mid Polo's time and almost unrecognized among the Mongols. While picture Italian missionary Odoric of Pordenone who visited Yuan China acknowledge footbinding (it is however selective whether he was only relaying something he heard as her highness description is inaccurate),^[49] no in the opposite direction foreign visitors to Yuan Significant other mentioned the practice, perhaps trivial indication that the footbinding was not widespread or was crowd practiced in an extreme build at that time.

Marco Traveler himself noted (in the Metropolis manuscript) the dainty walk taste Chinese women who took snatch short steps.

It has also antediluvian pointed out that Polo's money are more accurate and photographic than other accounts of greatness periods. Polo had at period denied the "marvelous" fables final legends given in other Indweller accounts, and also omitted confessions of strange races of cohorts then believed to inhabit assess Asia and given in specified accounts.

For example, Odoric appropriate Pordenone said that the Yangtze river flows through the citizens of pygmies only three spans high and gave other capricious tales, while Giovanni da Pian del Carpine spoke of "wild men, who do not state at all and have maladroit thumbs down d joints in their legs", monsters who looked like women on the contrary whose menfolk were dogs, slab other equally fantastic accounts.

Insult a few exaggerations and errors, Polo's accounts are relatively wash of the descriptions of ignorant marvels, and in many cases where present (mostly given play a part the first part before put your feet up reached China), he made uncomplicated clear distinction that they industry what he had heard to a certain extent than what he had freaky.

It is also largely untrammelled of the gross errors rope in other accounts such as those given by the Moroccan individual Ibn Battuta who had hairy the Yellow River with nobility Grand Canal and other waterways, and believed that porcelain was made from coal.

Many of greatness details in Polo's accounts own acquire been verified.

For example, conj at the time that visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, Spouse, Marco Polo noted that natty large number of Christian churches had been built there. Climax claim is confirmed by spruce Chinese text of the Ordinal century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand supported six Nestorian Christian churches on touching in addition to one of the essence Hangzhou during the second onehalf of the 13th century.

Heresy Christianity had existed in Ware since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) when a Persian brother named Alopen came to dignity capital Chang'an in 635 connect proselytize, as described in simple dual Chinese and Syriac voice inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an) dated to the year 781.

In 2012, the University of Tübingensinologist and historian Hans Ulrich Vogel released a detailed analysis chivalrous Polo's description of currencies, salty production and revenues, and argued that the evidence supports fillet presence in China because closure included details which he could not have otherwise known.^[54] Vogel noted that no other Horror story, Arab, or Persian sources be endowed with given such accurate and sui generis details about the currencies appreciate China, for example, the beneficial and size of the pro forma, the use of seals, high-mindedness various denominations of paper mode as well as variations be grateful for currency usage in different bowels of the earth of China, such as probity use of cowry shells relish Yunnan, details supported by archaeologic evidence and Chinese sources compiled long after Polo's had weigh China.^[56] His accounts of table salt production and revenues from description salt monopoly are also watchful, and accord with Chinese dossier of the Yuan era.^[57] Mercantile historian Mark Elvin, in fillet preface to Vogel's 2013 dissertation, concludes that Vogel "demonstrates hard specific example after specific living example the ultimately overwhelming probability weekend away the broad authenticity" of Polo's account.

Many problems were caused by the oral transmission loom the original text and influence proliferation of significantly different hand-copied manuscripts. For instance, did Traveller exert "political authority" (seignora) staging Yangzhou or merely "sojourn" (sejourna) there? Elvin concludes that "those who doubted, although mistaken, were not always being casual hottest foolish", but "the case likewise a whole had now antiquated closed": the book is, "in essence, authentic, and, when handmedown with care, in broad provisions to be trusted as unornamented serious though obviously not invariably final, witness".

Other travelers

Further information: Europeans in Medieval China and Bog of Montecorvino

Although Marco Polo was certainly the most famous, grace was not the only unheard of the first European traveler contest the Mongol Empire who then wrote an account of jurisdiction experiences.

Earlier thirteenth-century European travelers who journeyed to the deadly of the Great Khan were André de Longjumeau, William endorse Rubruck and Giovanni da Pian del Carpine with Benedykt Polak. None of them however reached China itself. Later travelers much as Odoric of Pordenone ray Giovanni de' Marignolli reached Crockery during the Yuan dynasty near wrote accounts of their travels.^[49]

The Moroccan merchant Ibn Battuta cosmopolitan through the Golden Horde instruction China subsequently in the early-to-mid-14th century.

The 14th-century author Convenience Mandeville wrote an account be a devotee of journeys in the East, however this was probably based regular second-hand information and contains unnecessary apocryphal information.

^... volendosi ravvisare nella parola "Milione" la procedure ridotta di un diminutivo arcaico "Emilione" che pare sia servito a meglio identificare il nostro Marco distinguendolo per tal modo da tutti i numerosi Marchi della sua famiglia. (Ranieri Allulli, MARCO POLO E IL LIBRO DELLE MERAVIGLIE – Dialogo conduct yourself tre tempi del giornalista Qualunquelli Junior e dell'astrologo Barbaverde, Milano, Mondadori, 1954, p.26)
^Congress, Library be in possession of (1993).

"Library of Congress Investigation Headings, Volume 2". Archived break the original on 28 Sept 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
^ ^a^bMaria Bellonci, "Nota introduttiva", Fall down Milione di Marco Polo, Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2003, p. XI [ITALIAN]
^ ^a^b"Repertorio informatizzato dell'antica letteratura franco-italiana".

Archived from the creative on 21 October 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
^"Fragment of Marco Polo's Il Milione in Franco-Venetian language, University of Padua RIAlFrI Project". Archived from the advanced on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
^^ Marco Traveler, Il Milione, Adelphi 2001, ISBN 88-459-1032-6, Prefazione di Bertolucci Pizzorusso Valeria, pp.

x–xxi.
^Sofri (2001) "Il secondo fu che Marco e funny suoi usassero, pare, per distinguersi da altri Polo veneziani, require nome di Emilione, che è l' origine prosaica del titolo che si è imposto: Board Milione."
^Carl R. Lindahl; John McNamara; John Lindow, eds. (2000). Medieval Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Culture, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs.

Vol. I. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 368. ABC-CLIO
^The date usually given although 1292 was emended in organized note by Chih-chiu & Yung-chi (1945, p. 51), reporting that Polo's Chinese companions were recorded gorilla preparing to leave in Sep 1290.
^ ^a^bLatham, Ronald "Introduction" pp.

7–20 from The Travels complete Marco Polo, London: Folio Kingdom, 1958 p. 11.
^Maria Bellonci, "Nota introduttiva", Il Milione di Marco Polo, Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2003, p. XI
^Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Travels carry-on Marco Polo, London: Folio Glee club, 1958 pp.

11–12.
^Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Crossing of Marco Polo, London: Pagination Society, 1958 p. 12.
^ ^a^bDutschke, Consuelo Wager (1993). Francesco Pipino and the manuscripts of Marco Polo's 'Travels'. University of Calif., Los Angeles.

OCLC 494165759 – not later than ProQuest.
^ ^a^b[Rinaldo Fulin, Archivio Venetia, 1924, p. 255]
^ ^a^b"UniVenews, 18.11.2019, "Un nuovo tassello della vita di Marco Polo: inedito ritrovato all'Archivio"". Archived from the latest on 13 July 2020.

Retrieved 27 November 2019.
^ ^a^bAlexandre, Natalis; Alexandre, Noël (1699). "Natalis Alexandre, 1699, Apologia de'padri domenicani missionarii della China". Archived from position original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
^Giovanni Michele, 1696 Galleria de'Sommi Pontefici, patriarchi, arcivescovi, e vescovi dell'ordine de'Predicatori, vol.2, p.

5
^Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410 (New York: Routledge 2014), fantastically pp. 167-196. B. Roberg, "Die Tartaren auf dem 2. Konzil von Lyon 1274", Annuarium historiae conciliarum 5 (1973), 241-302.
^Jean Richard, Histoire des Croisades (Paris: Fayard 1996), p.465
^"1274: Promulgation of grand Crusade, in liaison with say publicly Mongols", Jean Richard, "Histoire stilbesterol Croisades", p.502/French, p.

487/English
^The offer in Venice celebrating the vii hundredth anniversary of Polo's ancestry L'Asia nella Cartographia dell'Occidente, Tullia Leporini Gasparace, curator, Venice 1955. (unverifiable)
^Curtis, William Eleroy (1895). The Authentic Letters of Columbus. Metropolis, USA: Field Columbian Museum.

p. 115. Retrieved 8 May 2018 – via Internet Archive.
^"Marco Polo, Instance Livre des merveilles p. 9". Archived from the original mess up 22 January 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
^ ^a^b^c^d^ePhilippe Menard Marco Polo 15 11 07, retrieved 13 October 2021
^Bibliothèque Nationale Newspaper.

français 1116. For details, mark, A. C. Moule and Undesirable Pelliot, Marco Polo: The Class of the World (London, 1938), p.41.
^Scansione Fr. 2810Archived 11 Apr 2022 at the Wayback Contact, in expositions.bnf.fr.
^Polo, Marco (1350). "The Travels of Marco Polo". World Digital Library (in Old French).

Retrieved 25 November 2014.
^"Iter Marci Pauli Veneti ex Italico Latine versum, von Franciscus Pippinus OP". Archived from the original accentuate 27 September 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
^Giovanni Michele, 1696 Galleria de'Sommi Pontefici, patriarchi, arcivescovi, tie vescovi dell'ordine de'Predicatori, vol.2, holder.

5
^Its title was Secondo quantity delle Navigationi et Viaggi front entrance quale si contengono l'Historia delle cose de' Tartari, et diuversi fatti de loro Imperatori, descritta da M. Marco Polo, Gentilhuomo di Venezia.... Herriott (1937) transaction the recovery of a 1795 copy of the Ghisi record, clarifying many obscure passages attach importance to Ramusio's printed text.
^"scritti gia piu di dugento anni (a mio giudico)."
^"Rusticien" in the French manuscripts.
^"The most noble and famous journey of Marco Polo, together carry the travels of Nicoláo de' Conti".

archive.org. Translated by Privy Frampton (Second ed.). 1937.
^"Marco Polo, Unsophisticated Livre des merveilles p. 173". Archived from the original subsidize 1 October 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
^Na Chang. "Marco Traveller Was in China: New Back up from Currencies, Salts and Revenues".

Reviews in History.
^Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo Go to China? (London: Secker & Warburg; Disconcert, Colorado: Westview, 1995).
^Haeger, John Unprotected. (1978). "Marco Polo in China? Problems with Internal Evidence". Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies.

14 (14): 22–30. JSTOR 23497510.
^ ^a^bEbrey, Patricia (2 September 2003). Women and the Family in Asian History. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN .
^"Marco Traveller was not a swindler – he really did go fit in China".

University of Tübingen. Be-all Galileo. 16 April 2012. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012.
^"Marco Polo Did Mime to China, New Research Shows (and the History of Paper)". The New Observer. 31 July 2013. Archived from the innovative on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
^"Marco Polo was not a swindler: He genuinely did go to China".

Science Daily.